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Nitrate in All Respects: Metabolic Pathways, Sources, and Human Health

Year 2019, Volume: 3 Issue: 2, 120 - 130, 27.05.2019

Abstract

Nitrate is a naturally occurring form of
nitrogen. It exists in the air, soil, water, and plants. It is also used as a
food additive in foodstuffs such as cured meats and some cheese types. Ever
since the nitrate was considered as a toxic contaminant of food and water with
potentially harmful effects such as methemoglobinemia and cancer. More recently,
it is reported that dietary nitrate has beneficial effects for the human body.
In this review, it is discussed the dietary sources of nitrate and their
affecting factors, and metabolism of nitrate in the human body, as well as its
benefits on human health.

References

  • Aggarwal, M., Aggarwal B., Rao, J. (2017). Integrative medicine for cardiovascular disease and prevention. Med Clin N Am., 101, 895-923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2017.04.007
  • Amr, A., & Hadidi, N. (2001). Effect of cultivar and harvest date on nitrate (NO3) and nitrite (NO2) content of selected vegetables grown under open field and greenhouse conditions in Jordan. Journal of food composition and analysis, 14(1), 59-67.
  • Ashworth, A., Mitchell, K., Blackwell, J.R., Vanhatalo A., Jones, A.M. (2015). High-nitrate vegetable diet increases plasma nitrate and nitrite concentrations and reduces blood pressure in healthy women. Public Health Nutrition, 18 (14), 2669-2678.
  • Ashworth, A., Bescos, R. (2017). Dietary nitrate and blood pressure: evolution of a new nutrient? Nutrition Research Reviews, 30, 208-219.
  • Bahadoran, Z., Ghasemi, A., Mirmiran, P., Azizi, F., Hadaegh, F. (2015). Beneficial effects of inorganic nitrate/nitrite in type 2 diabetes and its complications. Nutrition and Metabolism, 12, 16.
  • Bedale, W., Sindelar, J.J., Milkowski, A.L. (2016). Dietary nitrate and nitrite: Benefits, risks, and evolving perceptions. Meat Science, 120, 85-92.
  • Bloch, K. D., Steinbicker, A. U., Lohmeyer, L. K., & Malhotra, R. (2011). Inhaled nitric oxide. In Nitrite and Nitrate in Human Health and Disease (pp. 187-205). Humana Press.
  • Bondonno, C.P., Croft, K.D., Hodgson, J.M. (2016). Dietary nitrate, nitric oxide, and cardiovascular health. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 56 (12), 2036-2052.
  • Bryan, N.S., Alexander, D.D., Coughlin, J.R., Milkowski, A.L., Boffetta, P. (2012). Ingested nitrate and nitrite and stomach cancer risk: An updated review. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 50, 3646-3665.
  • Bryan, N.S., Ivy, J.L. (2015). Inorganic nitrite and nitrate: evidence to support consideration as dietary nutrients. Nutrition Research, 35, 643-654.
  • Bryan, N. S., &Petrosino, J. F. (2017). Nitrate-reducing oral bacteria: linking oral and systemic health. In Nitrite and Nitrate in Human Health and Disease (pp. 21-31). Humana Press, Cham.
  • Chamandoost S., Moradi M. F., Hosseini M.-J. (2016). A Review of nitrate and nitrite toxicity in foods.Journal Hum Environ. Health Promot. 1(2), 80-86. https://doi.org/10.29252/JHEHP.1.2.80
  • Clements, W.T., Lee, S-R., Bloomer, R.J. (2014). Nitrate ingestion: A review of the health and physical performance effects. Nutrients, 6, 5224-5264.
  • Correia, M., Barroso, A., Barroso, M. F., Soares, D., Oliveira, M.B.P.P., Delerue-Matos, C., (2010). Contribution of different vegetable types to exogenous nitrate and nitrite exposure. Food Chemistry, 120, 960-966.
  • Ding, Z., Johanningsmeier, S.D., Price, R., Reynolds, R., Truong, V.-D., Payton, S.C., Breidt, F. (2018). Evaluation of nitrate and nitrite contents in pickled fruit and vegetable products. Food Control, 90, 304-311.
  • Ekart, K., Gorenjak A.H., Madorran E., Lapajne, S., Langerholc, T. (2013). Study on the influence of food processing on nitrate levels in vegetables. EFSA supporting publication 2013: EN-514.
  • European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). (2008). Nitrate in vegetables‐Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food chain. EFSA Journal, 6(6), 689.
  • FAO/WHO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization). (1995). Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. World Health Organ Tech.Rep.Ser. 859, 1-54.
  • FAO/WHO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization). (2003). Nitrate and potential endogenous formation of N-nitroso compounds. WHO Food Additive series 50, Geneva: WHO. Retrieved from http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v50je01.htm
  • Ghasemi, A., Jeddi, S. (2017). Anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects of nitrate and nitrite. Nitric Oxide,70, 9, 24.
  • Gee, L. C., & Ahluwalia, A. (2016). Dietary nitrate lowers blood pressure: epidemiological, pre-clinical experimental and clinical trial evidence. Current hypertension reports, 18(2), 17.
  • Gilchrist, M., & Benjamin, N. (2017). From atmospheric nitrogen to bioactive nitrogen oxides. In Nitrite and nitrate in human health and disease (pp. 11-19). Humana Press, Cham.
  • Heidari, S., Ziarati, P. (2015). Physicochemical characteristics and nitrate content in fresh and canned pears products. Orient. J. Chem., 31, 4, 2303-2309. http://dx.doi.org/10.13005/ojc/310458
  • Hord, N.G., Tang, Y., Brya, N.S. (2009). Food sources of nitrates and nitrites: the physiologic context for potential health benefits. Am J Clin Nutr. 90, 1-10.https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2008.27131
  • Jackson, J., Patterson, A.J., MacDonald-Wicks, L., McEvoy, M. (2017). The role of inorganic nitrate and nitrite in CVD.
  • Jiang, H., Torregrossa, A.C., Parthasarathy, D.K., Bryan, N.S. (2012). Natural product nitric oxide chemistry: New activity of old medicines. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Article ID 873210, 9 pages.
  • Kmecl, V., Žnidarčič, D. (2015). Accreditation of the analytical method used for nitrate determination in vegetables. Arch. Biol. Sci., Belgrade,67 (1), 295-302.https://doi.org/10.2298/ABS140428046K
  • Liu, A.H., Bondonno, C.P., Croft, K.D., Puddey, I.B., Woodman, R.J., Rich, L., Ward, N.C., Vita, J.A., Hodgson, J.M. (2013). Effects of a nitrate-rich meal on arterial stiffness and blood pressure in healthy volunteers. Nitric Oxide, 35, 123-130.
  • Machha, A., SchechterA.N. (2012). Inorganic nitrate: a major player in the cardiovascular health benefits of vegetables? Nutrition Reviews, 70(6), 367-372.
  • McCarty, M. F. (2013). Dietary nitrate and reductive polyphenols may potentiate the vascular benefit and alleviate the ulcerative risk of low-dose aspirin. Medical Hypotheses, 80, 186-190.
  • Mcdonagh, S. T., Wylie, L. J., Thompson, C., Vanhatalo, A., & Jones, A. M. (2018). Potential benefits of dietary nitrate ingestion in healthy and clinical populations: A brief review. European journal of sport science, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2018.1445298
  • Milkowski, A., Garg, H. K., Coughlin, J.R., Bryan, N.S. (2010). Nutritional epidemiology in the context of nitric oxide biology: A risk-benefit evaluation for dietary nitrite and nitrate. Nitric Oxide, 22, 110-119.
  • Milkowski, A. L. (2017). Sources of exposure to nitrogen oxides. In Nitrite and nitrate in human health and disease (pp. 69-82). Humana Press, Cham.
  • Miller, G.D., Marsh, A.P., Dove, R.W., Beavers, D., Presley, T., Helms, C., Bechtold, E., King, S.B., Kim-Shapiro, D. (2012). Plasma nitrate and nitrite are increased by a high-nitrate supplement but not by high-nitrate foods in older adults. Nutrition Research, 32, 160-168.
  • Münzel, T., Daiber, A. (2018). Inorganic nitrite and nitrate in cardiovascular therapy: A better alternative to organic nitrates as nitric oxide donors? Vascular Pharmacology, 102, 1-10.
  • Omar, S. A., Artime, E., & Webb, A. J. (2012). A comparison of organic and inorganic nitrates/nitrites. Nitric Oxide, 26(4), 229-240.
  • Pannala, A. S., Mani, A. R., Spencer, J. P., Skinner, V., Bruckdorfer, K. R., Moore, K. P., & Rice-Evans, C. A. (2003). The effect of dietary nitrate on salivary, plasma, and urinary nitrate metabolism in humans. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 34(5), 576-584.
  • Qu, X.M., Wu, Z.F., Pang, B.X., Jin, L.Y., Qin, L.Z., Wang, S.L. (2016). From nitrate to nitric oxide: the role of salivary glands and oral bacteria. Journal of Dental Research, 95(13),1452-1456.
  • Santamaria, P. (2006). Nitrate in vegetables: toxicity, content, intake and EC regulation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 86(1), 10-17.
  • Santamaria, P., Elia, A., Serio, F., & Todaro, E. (1999). A survey of nitrate and oxalate content in fresh vegetables. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 79(13), 1882-1888.
  • Siciliano, J., Krulick, S., Heisler, E. G., Schwartz, J. H., & White, J. W. (1975). Nitrate and nitrite content of some fresh and processed market vegetables. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 23(3), 461-464.
  • Siervo, M., Lara, J., Ogbonmwan, I., Mathers J.C. (2013). Inorganic nitrate and beetroot juice supplementation reduces blood pressure in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Nutrition, 143, 818-826.
  • Sindelar, J.J., Milkowski A. L. (2012). Human safety controversies surrounding nitrate and nitrite in the diet. Nitric Oxide, 26, 259-266.
  • Sobko, T., Marcus, C., Govoni, M., Kamily, S. (2010). Dietary nitrate in Japanese traditional foods lowers diastolic blood pressure in healthy volunteers. Nitric Oxide, 22, 136-140.
  • Umar, S., Iqbal, M., &Abrol, Y. P. (2007). Are nitrate concentrations in leafy vegetables within safe limits?. Current science, 355-360.
  • Velmurugan S., Gan, J.M., Rathod, K. S., Khambata, R.S., Ghosh, S. M., Hartley, A., Eijl, S.V., Sagi-Kiss, V., Chowdhury, T.A., Curtis, M., Kuhnle, G.G.C., Wade, W.G., Ahluwalia, A. (2016). Dietary nitrate improves vascular function in patients with hypercholesterolemia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.,103, 25-38.
  • Woessner, M., Smoliga J.M., Tarzia B., Stabler T., Van Bruggen M., Allen J.D. (2016). A stepwise reduction in plasma and salivary nitrite with increasing strengths of mouthwash following a dietary nitrate load. Nitric Oxide, 54, 1-7.

Her Yönüyle Nitrat: Metabolik Yolları, Kaynakları ve İnsan Sağlığına Etkileri

Year 2019, Volume: 3 Issue: 2, 120 - 130, 27.05.2019

Abstract

Nitrat, doğal olarak meydana gelen azot formudur.
Hava, toprak, su ve bitkilerde bulunur. Aynı zamanda kür edilmiş et ürünleri ve
peynir gibi gıdalarda gıda katkı maddesi olarak da kullanılır. Eskiden beri,
methamoglobinemia ve kanser gibi potansiyel zararlı etkilere sahip, gıda ve su için
toksik kirletici olarak kabul edilmiştir. Son zamanlarda, nitratın insan vücudu
için potansiyel faydaları olduğu bildirilmektedir. Bu derlemede, nitrat
kaynakları ve akümülasyonu üzerine etki eden faktörler
, insan vücudunda metabolizması yanı sıra
sağlık üzerine yararlı etkileri tartışılmaktadır.

References

  • Aggarwal, M., Aggarwal B., Rao, J. (2017). Integrative medicine for cardiovascular disease and prevention. Med Clin N Am., 101, 895-923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2017.04.007
  • Amr, A., & Hadidi, N. (2001). Effect of cultivar and harvest date on nitrate (NO3) and nitrite (NO2) content of selected vegetables grown under open field and greenhouse conditions in Jordan. Journal of food composition and analysis, 14(1), 59-67.
  • Ashworth, A., Mitchell, K., Blackwell, J.R., Vanhatalo A., Jones, A.M. (2015). High-nitrate vegetable diet increases plasma nitrate and nitrite concentrations and reduces blood pressure in healthy women. Public Health Nutrition, 18 (14), 2669-2678.
  • Ashworth, A., Bescos, R. (2017). Dietary nitrate and blood pressure: evolution of a new nutrient? Nutrition Research Reviews, 30, 208-219.
  • Bahadoran, Z., Ghasemi, A., Mirmiran, P., Azizi, F., Hadaegh, F. (2015). Beneficial effects of inorganic nitrate/nitrite in type 2 diabetes and its complications. Nutrition and Metabolism, 12, 16.
  • Bedale, W., Sindelar, J.J., Milkowski, A.L. (2016). Dietary nitrate and nitrite: Benefits, risks, and evolving perceptions. Meat Science, 120, 85-92.
  • Bloch, K. D., Steinbicker, A. U., Lohmeyer, L. K., & Malhotra, R. (2011). Inhaled nitric oxide. In Nitrite and Nitrate in Human Health and Disease (pp. 187-205). Humana Press.
  • Bondonno, C.P., Croft, K.D., Hodgson, J.M. (2016). Dietary nitrate, nitric oxide, and cardiovascular health. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 56 (12), 2036-2052.
  • Bryan, N.S., Alexander, D.D., Coughlin, J.R., Milkowski, A.L., Boffetta, P. (2012). Ingested nitrate and nitrite and stomach cancer risk: An updated review. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 50, 3646-3665.
  • Bryan, N.S., Ivy, J.L. (2015). Inorganic nitrite and nitrate: evidence to support consideration as dietary nutrients. Nutrition Research, 35, 643-654.
  • Bryan, N. S., &Petrosino, J. F. (2017). Nitrate-reducing oral bacteria: linking oral and systemic health. In Nitrite and Nitrate in Human Health and Disease (pp. 21-31). Humana Press, Cham.
  • Chamandoost S., Moradi M. F., Hosseini M.-J. (2016). A Review of nitrate and nitrite toxicity in foods.Journal Hum Environ. Health Promot. 1(2), 80-86. https://doi.org/10.29252/JHEHP.1.2.80
  • Clements, W.T., Lee, S-R., Bloomer, R.J. (2014). Nitrate ingestion: A review of the health and physical performance effects. Nutrients, 6, 5224-5264.
  • Correia, M., Barroso, A., Barroso, M. F., Soares, D., Oliveira, M.B.P.P., Delerue-Matos, C., (2010). Contribution of different vegetable types to exogenous nitrate and nitrite exposure. Food Chemistry, 120, 960-966.
  • Ding, Z., Johanningsmeier, S.D., Price, R., Reynolds, R., Truong, V.-D., Payton, S.C., Breidt, F. (2018). Evaluation of nitrate and nitrite contents in pickled fruit and vegetable products. Food Control, 90, 304-311.
  • Ekart, K., Gorenjak A.H., Madorran E., Lapajne, S., Langerholc, T. (2013). Study on the influence of food processing on nitrate levels in vegetables. EFSA supporting publication 2013: EN-514.
  • European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). (2008). Nitrate in vegetables‐Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food chain. EFSA Journal, 6(6), 689.
  • FAO/WHO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization). (1995). Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. World Health Organ Tech.Rep.Ser. 859, 1-54.
  • FAO/WHO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization). (2003). Nitrate and potential endogenous formation of N-nitroso compounds. WHO Food Additive series 50, Geneva: WHO. Retrieved from http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v50je01.htm
  • Ghasemi, A., Jeddi, S. (2017). Anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects of nitrate and nitrite. Nitric Oxide,70, 9, 24.
  • Gee, L. C., & Ahluwalia, A. (2016). Dietary nitrate lowers blood pressure: epidemiological, pre-clinical experimental and clinical trial evidence. Current hypertension reports, 18(2), 17.
  • Gilchrist, M., & Benjamin, N. (2017). From atmospheric nitrogen to bioactive nitrogen oxides. In Nitrite and nitrate in human health and disease (pp. 11-19). Humana Press, Cham.
  • Heidari, S., Ziarati, P. (2015). Physicochemical characteristics and nitrate content in fresh and canned pears products. Orient. J. Chem., 31, 4, 2303-2309. http://dx.doi.org/10.13005/ojc/310458
  • Hord, N.G., Tang, Y., Brya, N.S. (2009). Food sources of nitrates and nitrites: the physiologic context for potential health benefits. Am J Clin Nutr. 90, 1-10.https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2008.27131
  • Jackson, J., Patterson, A.J., MacDonald-Wicks, L., McEvoy, M. (2017). The role of inorganic nitrate and nitrite in CVD.
  • Jiang, H., Torregrossa, A.C., Parthasarathy, D.K., Bryan, N.S. (2012). Natural product nitric oxide chemistry: New activity of old medicines. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Article ID 873210, 9 pages.
  • Kmecl, V., Žnidarčič, D. (2015). Accreditation of the analytical method used for nitrate determination in vegetables. Arch. Biol. Sci., Belgrade,67 (1), 295-302.https://doi.org/10.2298/ABS140428046K
  • Liu, A.H., Bondonno, C.P., Croft, K.D., Puddey, I.B., Woodman, R.J., Rich, L., Ward, N.C., Vita, J.A., Hodgson, J.M. (2013). Effects of a nitrate-rich meal on arterial stiffness and blood pressure in healthy volunteers. Nitric Oxide, 35, 123-130.
  • Machha, A., SchechterA.N. (2012). Inorganic nitrate: a major player in the cardiovascular health benefits of vegetables? Nutrition Reviews, 70(6), 367-372.
  • McCarty, M. F. (2013). Dietary nitrate and reductive polyphenols may potentiate the vascular benefit and alleviate the ulcerative risk of low-dose aspirin. Medical Hypotheses, 80, 186-190.
  • Mcdonagh, S. T., Wylie, L. J., Thompson, C., Vanhatalo, A., & Jones, A. M. (2018). Potential benefits of dietary nitrate ingestion in healthy and clinical populations: A brief review. European journal of sport science, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2018.1445298
  • Milkowski, A., Garg, H. K., Coughlin, J.R., Bryan, N.S. (2010). Nutritional epidemiology in the context of nitric oxide biology: A risk-benefit evaluation for dietary nitrite and nitrate. Nitric Oxide, 22, 110-119.
  • Milkowski, A. L. (2017). Sources of exposure to nitrogen oxides. In Nitrite and nitrate in human health and disease (pp. 69-82). Humana Press, Cham.
  • Miller, G.D., Marsh, A.P., Dove, R.W., Beavers, D., Presley, T., Helms, C., Bechtold, E., King, S.B., Kim-Shapiro, D. (2012). Plasma nitrate and nitrite are increased by a high-nitrate supplement but not by high-nitrate foods in older adults. Nutrition Research, 32, 160-168.
  • Münzel, T., Daiber, A. (2018). Inorganic nitrite and nitrate in cardiovascular therapy: A better alternative to organic nitrates as nitric oxide donors? Vascular Pharmacology, 102, 1-10.
  • Omar, S. A., Artime, E., & Webb, A. J. (2012). A comparison of organic and inorganic nitrates/nitrites. Nitric Oxide, 26(4), 229-240.
  • Pannala, A. S., Mani, A. R., Spencer, J. P., Skinner, V., Bruckdorfer, K. R., Moore, K. P., & Rice-Evans, C. A. (2003). The effect of dietary nitrate on salivary, plasma, and urinary nitrate metabolism in humans. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 34(5), 576-584.
  • Qu, X.M., Wu, Z.F., Pang, B.X., Jin, L.Y., Qin, L.Z., Wang, S.L. (2016). From nitrate to nitric oxide: the role of salivary glands and oral bacteria. Journal of Dental Research, 95(13),1452-1456.
  • Santamaria, P. (2006). Nitrate in vegetables: toxicity, content, intake and EC regulation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 86(1), 10-17.
  • Santamaria, P., Elia, A., Serio, F., & Todaro, E. (1999). A survey of nitrate and oxalate content in fresh vegetables. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 79(13), 1882-1888.
  • Siciliano, J., Krulick, S., Heisler, E. G., Schwartz, J. H., & White, J. W. (1975). Nitrate and nitrite content of some fresh and processed market vegetables. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 23(3), 461-464.
  • Siervo, M., Lara, J., Ogbonmwan, I., Mathers J.C. (2013). Inorganic nitrate and beetroot juice supplementation reduces blood pressure in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Nutrition, 143, 818-826.
  • Sindelar, J.J., Milkowski A. L. (2012). Human safety controversies surrounding nitrate and nitrite in the diet. Nitric Oxide, 26, 259-266.
  • Sobko, T., Marcus, C., Govoni, M., Kamily, S. (2010). Dietary nitrate in Japanese traditional foods lowers diastolic blood pressure in healthy volunteers. Nitric Oxide, 22, 136-140.
  • Umar, S., Iqbal, M., &Abrol, Y. P. (2007). Are nitrate concentrations in leafy vegetables within safe limits?. Current science, 355-360.
  • Velmurugan S., Gan, J.M., Rathod, K. S., Khambata, R.S., Ghosh, S. M., Hartley, A., Eijl, S.V., Sagi-Kiss, V., Chowdhury, T.A., Curtis, M., Kuhnle, G.G.C., Wade, W.G., Ahluwalia, A. (2016). Dietary nitrate improves vascular function in patients with hypercholesterolemia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.,103, 25-38.
  • Woessner, M., Smoliga J.M., Tarzia B., Stabler T., Van Bruggen M., Allen J.D. (2016). A stepwise reduction in plasma and salivary nitrite with increasing strengths of mouthwash following a dietary nitrate load. Nitric Oxide, 54, 1-7.
There are 47 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Health Care Administration
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Mohamed Ghellam 0000-0003-3643-9835

İlkay Koca

Publication Date May 27, 2019
Published in Issue Year 2019 Volume: 3 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Ghellam, M., & Koca, İ. (2019). Nitrate in All Respects: Metabolic Pathways, Sources, and Human Health. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(2), 120-130.