Sosyo-Kültürel ve Yapısal Faktörler Temelinde İşgücü Piyasasında Kadınların Ekonomik Güçlenme Süreci Önündeki Sorunları ve Nedenleri

Elif    Özlem Özçatal

doi:10.25295/fsecon.1332298

Research Article

The Challenges and Causes of Women’s Economic Empowerment in the Labour Market Based on Socio-Cultural and Structural Factors

Year 2023, Volume: 7 Issue: 3, 2539 - 2571, 18.09.2023

Elif Özlem Özçatal

https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1332298

Abstract

Empowering women is an important goal in achieving gender equality in the social policies and projects implemented by international/national institutions and organizations. Economic empowerment, which signifies women gaining equality, freedom, and self-sufficiency through participation in the labor market and employment, is of paramount importance. Education is the most crucial determinant in empowering women in all areas, especially in the economic field. However, despite a significant reduction in gender inequality in education today, it is still evident that there is a substantial disparity in labor force participation and job opportunities. This situation points to various dynamics affecting women's economic empowerment through labor force participation. These dynamics are the fundamental constraints imposed on women by socio-cultural and structural factors in the labor market.
The aim of this study is to identify the problems women face in the process of economic empowerment in the labor market based on socio-cultural and structural factors. The data obtained in the study indicate that socio-cultural and structural problems such as gender-based socio-cultural norms, the segmented occupational structure of the labor market, the unequal burden of unpaid work, and insufficient and expensive childcare services hinder women's economic empowerment. These issues mentioned above limit women's capacity to make choices, exercise freedom, and achieve autonomy in their decisions regarding employment and job preferences, which are crucial for economic empowerment. Within the framework of these limitations caused by these problems, women's access to the labor market remains inadequate, and the working conditions in the labor market are unfavorable. These issues restrict the capacity of women, which is essential for economic empowerment, to make choices, exercise freedom, and maintain autonomy in their decisions regarding employment and job preferences. Within the framework of these limitations caused by these problems, women's access to the labor market remains inadequate, and the working conditions and arrangements in the labor market become unfavorable. Due to the presence of socio-cultural and structural barriers, participation in the labor force not only fails to empower women economically but also perpetuates their vulnerability at home and in society within the employment context. Policies aimed at empowering women economically should not solely focus on raising women's education levels as a single goal. It is critical for these policies to also consider socio-cultural and structural factors and target the elimination of the problems caused by these factors.

Keywords

Women, Labour Market, Economic Empowerment, Cultural and Structural Barriers

References

Abelda, R. (1997). Economics and Feminism. New York: Tweyne Publishers.
Addati, L., Cattaneo, U., Esquivel, V. & Valarino, I. (2018). Care Work and Care Jobs for The Future of Decent Work. Geneva: ILO.
Al Mamun, M. A. & Hoque, M. M. (2022). The Impact of Paid Employment on Women's Empowerment: A Case Study of Female Garment Workers in Bangladesh. World Development Sustainability, 1, 100026.
Anker, R. (1997). Theories of Occupational Segregation by Sex: An Overview. International Labour Review, 136(3), 315-339.
Antonopoulos, R. & Memiş, E. (2009). Toplumsal Cinsiyet Bakış Açısıyla Mevcut Küresel Ekonomik Kriz ve Gelişmekte Olan Ülke Ekonomilerine Etkileri. Eğitim Bilim Toplum, 7(27), 78-130.
Aşkın, E. Ö. (2015). Kadınların İşgücü Piyasasındaki Konumlarını Etkileyen Faktörler. Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi, 10(1), 43-66.
Bertrand, M. (2020). Gender in the Twenty-First Century. AEA Papers and Proceedings, 110, 1-24
Bianchi, S. M., Sayer, L. C., Milkie, M. A. & Robinson, J. P. (2012). Housework: Who Did, Does or Will Do It, and How Much Does It Matter?. Social Forces, 91(1), 55-63.
Blau, F. D. & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Sources. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789-865.
Boniol, M., McIsaac, M., Xu, L., Wuliji, T., Diallo, K. & Campbell, J. (2019). Gender Equity in the Health Workforce: Analysis of 104 Countries. Working 1. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Bulut, T. & Başfırıncı, C. (2021). Farklı Sektörlerdeki Belirli Mesleklere İlişkin Toplumsal Cinsiyet Kalıp Yargıları: Doğrudan ve Dolaylı Ölçüm Yöntemlerine İlişkin Bir Araştırma. Uluslararası Ekonomi ve Yenilik Dergisi, 7(2), 327-356.
Carlson, D. L. & Petts, R. J. (2022). US Parents’ Domestic Labor during the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Population Research and Policy Review, 41(6), 2393-2418.
Cheema, A., Khwaja, A. I., Naseer, F. & Shapiro, J. N. (2019). Glass Walls: Experimental Evidence on Access Constraints Faced by Women. Technical Report.
Chopra, D. & Zambelli, E. (2017). No Time to Rest: Women’s Lived Experiences of Balancing Paid Work and Unpaid Care Work. Global Synthesis Report. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies.
Craig, L. & Powell, A. (2018). Shares of Housework Between Mothers, Fathers and Young People: Routine and Non-Routine Housework, Doing Housework for Oneself and Others. Social Indicators Research, 136(1), 269-281.
Crane, D. (2003). Moda ve Gündemleri: Giyimde Sınıf, Cinsiyet ve Kimlik. Ö. Çelik (Çev.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları
Crawford, M. (2006). Transformations: Women, Gender and Psychology. Boston: Mc Graw-Hill.
DB. (2010). Türkiye: Gelecek Nesiller için Fırsatların Çoğaltılması-Yaşam Fırsatları. Rapor No: 48627-TR, Dünya Bankası: Avrupa ve Orta Asya Bölgesi Beşeri Kalkınma Bölümü.
DB. (2015). Türkiye’de Çocuk Bakım Hizmetlerinde Arz ve Talep Durumu: Bir Karma Yöntem Çalışması. Washington DC: The World Bank.
Dean, L., Churchill, B. & Ruppanner, L. (2022). The Mental Load: Building A Deeper Theoretical Understanding of How Cognitive and Emotional Labor Overload Women and Mothers. Community, Work & Family, 25(1), 13-29.
Del Boca, D. & Sauer, R. M. (2009). Life Cycle Employment and Fertility Across Institutional Environments. European Economic Review, 53(3), 274-292.
Del Boca, D. (2015). The Impact of Child Care Costs and Availability on Mother’s Labor Supply. ImPRovE Working Paper 15/04. Antwerp: Herman Deleeck Centre for Social Policy, University of Antwerp. H
Do, M. & Kurimato, N. (2012). Women’s Empowerment and Choice of Contraceptive Methods in Selected African Countries. International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 38(1),23-33.
Dowie, G., de Haan, A., & Grantham, K. (2021b). Conclusion: Programming and Policy Lessons and Future Research Priorities for Women’s Economic Empowerment. K. Grantham, G. Dowie & A. de Haan (Ed.), Women’s Economic Empowerment Insights from Africa and South Asia (250-259). New York: Routledge.
Dowie, G., de Haan, A., Laszlo, S. & Grantham, K. (2021a). Introduction: The Growth and Economic Opportunities for Women Programme. K. Grantham, G. Dowie & A. de Haan (Ed.), Women’s Economic Empowerment Insights from Africa and South Asia (1-10). New York: Routledge.
Ecevit, Y. (2008). İşgücüne Katılım ve İstihdam. Türkiye’de Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitsizliği: Sorunlar, Öncelikler ve Çözüm Önerileri (113-214). İstanbul: TÜSİAD-KAGİDER
Ecevit, Y. (2011). Toplumsal Cinsiyet Sosyolojisine Başlangıç. Y. Ecevit & N. Karkıner (Ed.), Toplumsal Cinsiyet Sosyolojisi (2-29). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayını.
Ecevit, Y. (2021). Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliğinin Temel Kavramları. Cinsiyet Eşitliği İzleme Derneği (CEİD) Yayınları. Ankara
EIGE. (2020). Beijing +25: The Fifth Review of the Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action in the EU Member States. European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE).
Folbre, N. (2021). Developing Care: The Care Economy and Economic Development. K. Grantham, G. Dowie, & A. de Haan (Ed.), Women’s Economic Empowerment: Insights from Africa and South Asia (102-125). New York: Routledge.
Gallup-ILO. (2017). Towards A Better Future for Women and Work: Voices of Women and Men. Geneva: Gallup-ILO.
Harper, C., Marcus, R., George, R., D’Angelo, S. & Samman, E. (2020). Gender, Power and Progress: How Norms Change. London: ALIGN/ODI (www.alignplatform.org/gender-power-progress)
Harper, S., Austin, N. & Nandi, A. (2017). Daycare And Women’s Health, Social, and Economic Outcomes in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Systematic Review and Evidence Synthesis. GrOW Working Paper Series.
Heintz, J. (2021). Stalled Progress: Why Labour Markets Are Failing Women. K. Grantham, G. Dowie, & A. de Haan (Ed.), Women’s Economic Empowerment: Insights from Africa and South Asia (51-74). New York: Routledge.
İlkkaracan, İ., Kim, K. & Kaya, T. (2015). Sosyal Bakım Hizmetlerine Kamu Yatırımlarının İstihdam, Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliği ve Yoksulluğa Etkileri: Türkiye Örneği. İstanbul: İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Bilim, Mühendislik ve Teknolojide Kadın Araştırmaları ve Uygulamaları Merkezi.
ILO. (1999). Decent Work, International Labour Conferance,87th Session 1999, Report of The Director General, Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILO. (2018). Global Wage Report 2018/19: What Lies Behind Gender Pay Gaps. Geneva: International Labour Office
ILO. (2019). A Quantum Leap for Gender Equality: For a Better Future of Work for All. Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILO. (2022). World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2022. Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILO. (2023). Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Update. Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILOSTAT. (2023). Proportion of Women in Managerial Positions (%) Annual- 2021. https://www.ilo.org/shinyapps/bulkexplorer31/?lang=en&id=SDG_T552_NOC_RT_A
ILO-TÜİK. (2020). Cinsiyete Dayalı Ücret Farkının Ölçümü Türkiye Uygulaması.
Jaggar, A. M. (2013). We Fight for Roses Too: Time-Use and Global Gender Justice. Journal of Global Ethics, 9(2), 115-129.
Jensen, P. H. (2017). Cause and Effects of Female Labour Force Participation in Local Welfare Systems. European Societies, 19(2), 121-137.
Kabeer, N. (2008). Paid Work, Women’s Empowerment and Gender Justice: Critical Pathways of Social Change. Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex (Brighton, England).
Kabeer, N. (2010). Women's Empowerment, Development Interventions and The Management of Information Flows. IDS Bulletin, 41(6), 105-113.
Kabeer, N. (2021). Gender Equality, Inclusive Growth, and Labour Markets. K. Grantham, G. Dowie, & A. de Haan (Ed.), Women’s Economic Empowerment: Insights from Africa and South Asia (13-48). New York: Routledge.
KEFEK. (2013). Her Alandaki Kadın İstihdamının Arttırılması ve Çözüm Önerileri Komisyon Raporu. Yayın No: 12, TBMM Basımevi, Ankara.
Klasen, S. & Pieters, J. (2012). Push or Pull? Drivers of Female Labor Force Participation During India’s Economic Boom. IZA Discussion Paper No. 6395. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). http://ftp.iza.org/dp6395.pdf
Klasen, S. (2018). The Impact of Gender Inequality on Economic Performance in Developing Countries. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 10, 279-298.
Maani, S. A. & Cruickshank, A. A. (2009). What Is the Effect of Housework on the Market Wage, and Can It Explain the Gender Wage Gap?. Journal of Economic Surveys, 24(3), 402-427.
Mahata, S, Khan, R. K, Chaudhuri, S. & Nag, R. N. (2022). COVID-19 Lockdown, Family Migration and Unemployment in a Gendered Society. Research in Economics, 76(3), 218-236.
Mahata, S., Mandal, S., Khan, R. K. & Chaudhuri, S. (2023). Social Transition, Economic Development and Gender-Based Wage Disparity in a Developing Economy. Journal of Social and Economic Development, 1-20.
Mahmud, S., Shah, N. M. & Becker, S. (2012). Measurement of Women’s Empowerment in Rural Bangladesh. World Development, 40(3), 610-619.
Malhotra, A., Schuler, S.R. & Boender, C. (2002). Measuring Women’s Empowerment as a Variable in International Development. Background Paper Prepared for the World Bank Workshop on Poverty and Gender: New Perspectives. Washington DC: The World Bank.
Marcus, R. & Harper, C. (2014). Gender Justice and Social Norms-Processes of Change for Adolescent Girls: Towards a Conceptual Framework. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Marcus, R. (2021). Gender, Social Norms, and Women’s Economic Empowerment. K. Grantham, G. Dowie, & A. de Haan (Ed.), Women’s Economic Empowerment: Insights from Africa and South Asia (126-153). New York: Routledge
Mariara, J., McKay, A., Newell, A. & Rienzo, C. (2018). Gender Gaps in the Path to Adulthood for Young Females and Males in Six African Countries from the 1990s to the 2010s. IZA Journal of Development and Migration, 8(16). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40176-018-0124-8
McKay, A., O’Neill, M., Vargas, A. & Melesse, M. (2017). From School to Work in Six African Countries: How Are Women Faring?-Policy Brief. Growth and Economic Opportunities for Women (GrOW) International Development Research Centre.
MEB. (2022). Milli Eğitim İstatistikleri Örgün Eğitim 2021/2022.
Özçatal, E. Ö. & Güven, P. (2022). Covid-19 Kriz Sürecinin Kadınların Kayıt Dışı İstihdamına Etkileri. Politik Ekonomik Kuram, 6(1), 73-101
Özçatal, E. Ö. (2011). Ataerkillik, Toplumsal Cinsiyet ve Kadının Çalışma Yaşamına Katılımı. Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(1), 21-39.
Özçatal, E. Ö. (2022). Covid-19 Salgınının Ücretli ve Ücretsiz Kadın Emeği Üzerindeki Etkileri. SGD-Sosyal Güvenlik Dergisi, 12(2), 209-230.
Pedulla, D. S. & Thébaud, S. (2015). Can We Finish the Revolution? Gender, Work-Family Ideals, and Institutional Constraint. American Sociological Review, 80(1), 116-139.
Pollmann-Schult, M. & Reynolds, J. (2017). The Work and Wishes of Fathers: Actual and Preferred Work Hours Among German Fathers. European Sociological Review, 33(6), 823-838.
Procher, V., Ritter, N. & Vance, C. (2018). Housework Allocation in Germany: The Role of Income and Gender Identity. Social Science Quarterly, 99(1), 43-61.
Pullman, A. (2018). Gendered Pathways from School to Work: The Association Between Field of Study and Non-Standard Employment Outcomes in Canada. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 58, 44-53.
Reshi, I. A. & Sudha, T. (2022). Women Empowerment: A Literature Review. International Journal of Economic, Business, Accounting, Agriculture Management and Sharia Administration (IJEBAS), 2(6), 1353-1359.
Roberts, G. & Schöer, V. (2021). Gender-Based Segregation in Education, Jobs and Earnings in South Africa. World Development Perspectives, 23, 100348.
Samtleben, C. & Müller, K. U. (2022). Care And Careers: Gender (in) Equality in Unpaid Care, Housework and Employment. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 77, 100659.
Seedat, S. & Rondon M. (2021). Women’s Wellbeing and the Burden of Unpaid Work. BMJ. 2021. 374.1972. Doi: 10.1136/bmj.n1972 pmid: 34465574
Sen, G., Ostlin, P. & George, A. (2007). Unequal, Unfair, Ineffective and Inefficient. Gender Inequality in Health: Why it Exists and How We Can Change It. Final Report to the WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health. Solna: Karolinska Institute
Simonson, J., Gordo, L. R. & Kelle, N. (2015). Separate Paths, Same Direction? De-Standardization of Male Employment Biographies in East and West Germany. Current Sociology, 63(3), 387-410.
Toksöz, G. (2009). Kriz Koşullarında Toplumsal Cinsiyet Perspektifinden İşgücü Piyasaları. Ankara: ILO.
Toksöz, G. (2011). Kalkınmada Kadın Emeği. İstanbul: Varlık Yayınları.
Trappe, H., Pollmann-Schult, M. & Schmitt, C. (2015). The Rise and Decline of The Male Breadwinner Model: Institutional Underpinnings and Future Expectations. European Sociological Review, 31(2), 230-242.
TÜİK. (2022a). Türkiye Aile Yapısı Araştırması, 2021.
TÜİK. (2022b). Toplumsal Cinsiyet İstatistikleri, 2021.
TÜİK. (2023a). Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu. İşgücü İstatistikleri. https://www.tuik.gov.tr. (Çeşitli tarihlerde çevrimiçi erişim)
TÜİK. (2023b). İstatistiklerle Kadın, 2022. Haber Bülteni Sayı: 49668, Mart- 2023
UN Women. (2015). Progress of the World’s Women 2015-2016: Transforming Economies, Realizing Rights. New York
UNFPA. (2019). Gender Equality Strategy 2018-2021.
UNFPA. (2020). How Changing Social Norms is Crucial in Achieving Gender Equality.
Uraz, A., Aran, M., Hüsamoğlu, M., Okkalı Şanalmış, D. & Çapar, S. (2010). Türkiye’de Kadınların İşgücüne Katılımında Son Dönemde Gözlenen Eğilimler. DPT ve Dünya Bankası Refah ve Sosyal Politika Analitik Çalışma Programı, Çalışma Raporu, 2.
Weeden, K. A., Gelbgiser, D. & Morgan, S. L. (2020). Pipeline Dreams: Occupational Plans and Gender Differences in STEM Major Persistence and Completion. Sociology of Education, 93(4), 297-331.
World Bank. (2011). World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. Washington, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank.
Wunder, C. & Heineck, G. (2013). Working Time Preferences, Hours Mismatch and Well-Being of Couples: Are There Spillovers?. Labour Economics, 24, 244-252.

Sosyo-Kültürel ve Yapısal Faktörler Temelinde İşgücü Piyasasında Kadınların Ekonomik Güçlenme Süreci Önündeki Sorunları ve Nedenleri

Year 2023, Volume: 7 Issue: 3, 2539 - 2571, 18.09.2023

Elif Özlem Özçatal

https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1332298

Abstract

Kadınların güçlenmesi, uluslararası/ulusal kurum ve kuruluşların kadınlara yönelik uygulanan sosyal politika ve projelerinde toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliğini sağlamada önemli bir hedeftir. Kadınların işgücü piyasasına ve istihdama katılma yoluyla güçlenerek, eşitlik, özgürlük ve kendine yetme yeteneği kazanmasını ifade eden ekonomik güçlenme temel önemdedir. Kadınların ekonomik alan başta olmak üzere tüm diğer alanlarda güçlenmesinde eğitim en önemli belirleyicidir. Ancak günümüzde eğitim alanında cinsiyet eşitsizliğinin önemli ölçüde azalmasına karşın işgücüne katılma ve iş fırsatlarında bu eşitsizliğin hâlâ çok büyük olduğu görülmektedir. Bu durum kadınların işgücü piyasasına katılım yoluyla ekonomik güçlenmesinde sorunlarının farklı dinamiklerine işaret etmektedir. Bunlar, işgücü piyasasındaki sosyo-kültürel ve yapısal faktörlerin kadınlara dayattığı temel kısıtlamalardır.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, sosyo-kültürel ve yapısal faktörler temelinde işgücü piyasasında kadınların ekonomik güçlenme süreci önündeki sorunları nedenleriyle ortaya koymaktır. Çalışmada elde edilen veriler, toplumsal cinsiyet temelli sosyokültürel normlar, işgücü piyasasının katmanlaşmış iş ayrımı yapısı, ücretsiz çalışmanın eşit olmayan yükü, yetersiz ve pahalı çocuk bakım hizmetleri gibi sosyo-kültürel ve yapısal sorunların kadınların ekonomik güçlenmesini engellediğini göstermiştir. Söz konusu bu sorunlar ekonomik güçlenmede önemli olan kadınların istihdama katılma ve iş tercihi kararlarında seçim yapma kapasitesini, özgürlüğünü ve özerkliğini sınırlamaktadır. Bu sorunların yol açtığı kısıtlılıklar çerçevesinde kadınların işgücü piyasasına erişimleri yetersiz kalmakta, işgücü piyasasında çalışma biçimleri ve koşulları olumsuz olmaktadır. Sosyo-kültürel ve yapısal engellerin varlığı yüzünden istihdama katılma, kadınlar için ekonomik güçlenme sağlamadığı gibi evdeki/toplumdaki güçsüzlüğünün istihdamda da devam etmesi durumunu getirmektedir. Kadını ekonomik güçlendirmeyi amaçlayan politikalarda, sadece kadınların eğitimlerini yükseltmek gibi tek bir hedefe odaklan(ıl)mamalıdır. Bu politikalarda aynı zamanda sosyo-kültürel ve yapısal faktörlerin de dikkate alınması, bu faktörlerin yol açtığı sorunları ortadan kaldırmak hedefine de yönelmesi kritik önemdedir.

Keywords

Kadın, İşgücü Piyasası, Ekonomik Güçlenme, Kültürel ve Yapısal Engeller

References

Abelda, R. (1997). Economics and Feminism. New York: Tweyne Publishers.
Addati, L., Cattaneo, U., Esquivel, V. & Valarino, I. (2018). Care Work and Care Jobs for The Future of Decent Work. Geneva: ILO.
Al Mamun, M. A. & Hoque, M. M. (2022). The Impact of Paid Employment on Women's Empowerment: A Case Study of Female Garment Workers in Bangladesh. World Development Sustainability, 1, 100026.
Anker, R. (1997). Theories of Occupational Segregation by Sex: An Overview. International Labour Review, 136(3), 315-339.
Antonopoulos, R. & Memiş, E. (2009). Toplumsal Cinsiyet Bakış Açısıyla Mevcut Küresel Ekonomik Kriz ve Gelişmekte Olan Ülke Ekonomilerine Etkileri. Eğitim Bilim Toplum, 7(27), 78-130.
Aşkın, E. Ö. (2015). Kadınların İşgücü Piyasasındaki Konumlarını Etkileyen Faktörler. Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi, 10(1), 43-66.
Bertrand, M. (2020). Gender in the Twenty-First Century. AEA Papers and Proceedings, 110, 1-24
Bianchi, S. M., Sayer, L. C., Milkie, M. A. & Robinson, J. P. (2012). Housework: Who Did, Does or Will Do It, and How Much Does It Matter?. Social Forces, 91(1), 55-63.
Blau, F. D. & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Sources. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789-865.
Boniol, M., McIsaac, M., Xu, L., Wuliji, T., Diallo, K. & Campbell, J. (2019). Gender Equity in the Health Workforce: Analysis of 104 Countries. Working 1. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Bulut, T. & Başfırıncı, C. (2021). Farklı Sektörlerdeki Belirli Mesleklere İlişkin Toplumsal Cinsiyet Kalıp Yargıları: Doğrudan ve Dolaylı Ölçüm Yöntemlerine İlişkin Bir Araştırma. Uluslararası Ekonomi ve Yenilik Dergisi, 7(2), 327-356.
Carlson, D. L. & Petts, R. J. (2022). US Parents’ Domestic Labor during the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Population Research and Policy Review, 41(6), 2393-2418.
Cheema, A., Khwaja, A. I., Naseer, F. & Shapiro, J. N. (2019). Glass Walls: Experimental Evidence on Access Constraints Faced by Women. Technical Report.
Chopra, D. & Zambelli, E. (2017). No Time to Rest: Women’s Lived Experiences of Balancing Paid Work and Unpaid Care Work. Global Synthesis Report. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies.
Craig, L. & Powell, A. (2018). Shares of Housework Between Mothers, Fathers and Young People: Routine and Non-Routine Housework, Doing Housework for Oneself and Others. Social Indicators Research, 136(1), 269-281.
Crane, D. (2003). Moda ve Gündemleri: Giyimde Sınıf, Cinsiyet ve Kimlik. Ö. Çelik (Çev.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları
Crawford, M. (2006). Transformations: Women, Gender and Psychology. Boston: Mc Graw-Hill.
DB. (2010). Türkiye: Gelecek Nesiller için Fırsatların Çoğaltılması-Yaşam Fırsatları. Rapor No: 48627-TR, Dünya Bankası: Avrupa ve Orta Asya Bölgesi Beşeri Kalkınma Bölümü.
DB. (2015). Türkiye’de Çocuk Bakım Hizmetlerinde Arz ve Talep Durumu: Bir Karma Yöntem Çalışması. Washington DC: The World Bank.
Dean, L., Churchill, B. & Ruppanner, L. (2022). The Mental Load: Building A Deeper Theoretical Understanding of How Cognitive and Emotional Labor Overload Women and Mothers. Community, Work & Family, 25(1), 13-29.
Del Boca, D. & Sauer, R. M. (2009). Life Cycle Employment and Fertility Across Institutional Environments. European Economic Review, 53(3), 274-292.
Del Boca, D. (2015). The Impact of Child Care Costs and Availability on Mother’s Labor Supply. ImPRovE Working Paper 15/04. Antwerp: Herman Deleeck Centre for Social Policy, University of Antwerp. H
Do, M. & Kurimato, N. (2012). Women’s Empowerment and Choice of Contraceptive Methods in Selected African Countries. International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 38(1),23-33.
Dowie, G., de Haan, A., & Grantham, K. (2021b). Conclusion: Programming and Policy Lessons and Future Research Priorities for Women’s Economic Empowerment. K. Grantham, G. Dowie & A. de Haan (Ed.), Women’s Economic Empowerment Insights from Africa and South Asia (250-259). New York: Routledge.
Dowie, G., de Haan, A., Laszlo, S. & Grantham, K. (2021a). Introduction: The Growth and Economic Opportunities for Women Programme. K. Grantham, G. Dowie & A. de Haan (Ed.), Women’s Economic Empowerment Insights from Africa and South Asia (1-10). New York: Routledge.
Ecevit, Y. (2008). İşgücüne Katılım ve İstihdam. Türkiye’de Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitsizliği: Sorunlar, Öncelikler ve Çözüm Önerileri (113-214). İstanbul: TÜSİAD-KAGİDER
Ecevit, Y. (2011). Toplumsal Cinsiyet Sosyolojisine Başlangıç. Y. Ecevit & N. Karkıner (Ed.), Toplumsal Cinsiyet Sosyolojisi (2-29). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayını.
Ecevit, Y. (2021). Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliğinin Temel Kavramları. Cinsiyet Eşitliği İzleme Derneği (CEİD) Yayınları. Ankara
EIGE. (2020). Beijing +25: The Fifth Review of the Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action in the EU Member States. European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE).
Folbre, N. (2021). Developing Care: The Care Economy and Economic Development. K. Grantham, G. Dowie, & A. de Haan (Ed.), Women’s Economic Empowerment: Insights from Africa and South Asia (102-125). New York: Routledge.
Gallup-ILO. (2017). Towards A Better Future for Women and Work: Voices of Women and Men. Geneva: Gallup-ILO.
Harper, C., Marcus, R., George, R., D’Angelo, S. & Samman, E. (2020). Gender, Power and Progress: How Norms Change. London: ALIGN/ODI (www.alignplatform.org/gender-power-progress)
Harper, S., Austin, N. & Nandi, A. (2017). Daycare And Women’s Health, Social, and Economic Outcomes in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Systematic Review and Evidence Synthesis. GrOW Working Paper Series.
Heintz, J. (2021). Stalled Progress: Why Labour Markets Are Failing Women. K. Grantham, G. Dowie, & A. de Haan (Ed.), Women’s Economic Empowerment: Insights from Africa and South Asia (51-74). New York: Routledge.
İlkkaracan, İ., Kim, K. & Kaya, T. (2015). Sosyal Bakım Hizmetlerine Kamu Yatırımlarının İstihdam, Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliği ve Yoksulluğa Etkileri: Türkiye Örneği. İstanbul: İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Bilim, Mühendislik ve Teknolojide Kadın Araştırmaları ve Uygulamaları Merkezi.
ILO. (1999). Decent Work, International Labour Conferance,87th Session 1999, Report of The Director General, Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILO. (2018). Global Wage Report 2018/19: What Lies Behind Gender Pay Gaps. Geneva: International Labour Office
ILO. (2019). A Quantum Leap for Gender Equality: For a Better Future of Work for All. Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILO. (2022). World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2022. Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILO. (2023). Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Update. Geneva: International Labour Office.
ILOSTAT. (2023). Proportion of Women in Managerial Positions (%) Annual- 2021. https://www.ilo.org/shinyapps/bulkexplorer31/?lang=en&id=SDG_T552_NOC_RT_A
ILO-TÜİK. (2020). Cinsiyete Dayalı Ücret Farkının Ölçümü Türkiye Uygulaması.
Jaggar, A. M. (2013). We Fight for Roses Too: Time-Use and Global Gender Justice. Journal of Global Ethics, 9(2), 115-129.
Jensen, P. H. (2017). Cause and Effects of Female Labour Force Participation in Local Welfare Systems. European Societies, 19(2), 121-137.
Kabeer, N. (2008). Paid Work, Women’s Empowerment and Gender Justice: Critical Pathways of Social Change. Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex (Brighton, England).
Kabeer, N. (2010). Women's Empowerment, Development Interventions and The Management of Information Flows. IDS Bulletin, 41(6), 105-113.
Kabeer, N. (2021). Gender Equality, Inclusive Growth, and Labour Markets. K. Grantham, G. Dowie, & A. de Haan (Ed.), Women’s Economic Empowerment: Insights from Africa and South Asia (13-48). New York: Routledge.
KEFEK. (2013). Her Alandaki Kadın İstihdamının Arttırılması ve Çözüm Önerileri Komisyon Raporu. Yayın No: 12, TBMM Basımevi, Ankara.
Klasen, S. & Pieters, J. (2012). Push or Pull? Drivers of Female Labor Force Participation During India’s Economic Boom. IZA Discussion Paper No. 6395. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). http://ftp.iza.org/dp6395.pdf
Klasen, S. (2018). The Impact of Gender Inequality on Economic Performance in Developing Countries. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 10, 279-298.
Maani, S. A. & Cruickshank, A. A. (2009). What Is the Effect of Housework on the Market Wage, and Can It Explain the Gender Wage Gap?. Journal of Economic Surveys, 24(3), 402-427.
Mahata, S, Khan, R. K, Chaudhuri, S. & Nag, R. N. (2022). COVID-19 Lockdown, Family Migration and Unemployment in a Gendered Society. Research in Economics, 76(3), 218-236.
Mahata, S., Mandal, S., Khan, R. K. & Chaudhuri, S. (2023). Social Transition, Economic Development and Gender-Based Wage Disparity in a Developing Economy. Journal of Social and Economic Development, 1-20.
Mahmud, S., Shah, N. M. & Becker, S. (2012). Measurement of Women’s Empowerment in Rural Bangladesh. World Development, 40(3), 610-619.
Malhotra, A., Schuler, S.R. & Boender, C. (2002). Measuring Women’s Empowerment as a Variable in International Development. Background Paper Prepared for the World Bank Workshop on Poverty and Gender: New Perspectives. Washington DC: The World Bank.
Marcus, R. & Harper, C. (2014). Gender Justice and Social Norms-Processes of Change for Adolescent Girls: Towards a Conceptual Framework. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Marcus, R. (2021). Gender, Social Norms, and Women’s Economic Empowerment. K. Grantham, G. Dowie, & A. de Haan (Ed.), Women’s Economic Empowerment: Insights from Africa and South Asia (126-153). New York: Routledge
Mariara, J., McKay, A., Newell, A. & Rienzo, C. (2018). Gender Gaps in the Path to Adulthood for Young Females and Males in Six African Countries from the 1990s to the 2010s. IZA Journal of Development and Migration, 8(16). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40176-018-0124-8
McKay, A., O’Neill, M., Vargas, A. & Melesse, M. (2017). From School to Work in Six African Countries: How Are Women Faring?-Policy Brief. Growth and Economic Opportunities for Women (GrOW) International Development Research Centre.
MEB. (2022). Milli Eğitim İstatistikleri Örgün Eğitim 2021/2022.
Özçatal, E. Ö. & Güven, P. (2022). Covid-19 Kriz Sürecinin Kadınların Kayıt Dışı İstihdamına Etkileri. Politik Ekonomik Kuram, 6(1), 73-101
Özçatal, E. Ö. (2011). Ataerkillik, Toplumsal Cinsiyet ve Kadının Çalışma Yaşamına Katılımı. Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(1), 21-39.
Özçatal, E. Ö. (2022). Covid-19 Salgınının Ücretli ve Ücretsiz Kadın Emeği Üzerindeki Etkileri. SGD-Sosyal Güvenlik Dergisi, 12(2), 209-230.
Pedulla, D. S. & Thébaud, S. (2015). Can We Finish the Revolution? Gender, Work-Family Ideals, and Institutional Constraint. American Sociological Review, 80(1), 116-139.
Pollmann-Schult, M. & Reynolds, J. (2017). The Work and Wishes of Fathers: Actual and Preferred Work Hours Among German Fathers. European Sociological Review, 33(6), 823-838.
Procher, V., Ritter, N. & Vance, C. (2018). Housework Allocation in Germany: The Role of Income and Gender Identity. Social Science Quarterly, 99(1), 43-61.
Pullman, A. (2018). Gendered Pathways from School to Work: The Association Between Field of Study and Non-Standard Employment Outcomes in Canada. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 58, 44-53.
Reshi, I. A. & Sudha, T. (2022). Women Empowerment: A Literature Review. International Journal of Economic, Business, Accounting, Agriculture Management and Sharia Administration (IJEBAS), 2(6), 1353-1359.
Roberts, G. & Schöer, V. (2021). Gender-Based Segregation in Education, Jobs and Earnings in South Africa. World Development Perspectives, 23, 100348.
Samtleben, C. & Müller, K. U. (2022). Care And Careers: Gender (in) Equality in Unpaid Care, Housework and Employment. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 77, 100659.
Seedat, S. & Rondon M. (2021). Women’s Wellbeing and the Burden of Unpaid Work. BMJ. 2021. 374.1972. Doi: 10.1136/bmj.n1972 pmid: 34465574
Sen, G., Ostlin, P. & George, A. (2007). Unequal, Unfair, Ineffective and Inefficient. Gender Inequality in Health: Why it Exists and How We Can Change It. Final Report to the WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health. Solna: Karolinska Institute
Simonson, J., Gordo, L. R. & Kelle, N. (2015). Separate Paths, Same Direction? De-Standardization of Male Employment Biographies in East and West Germany. Current Sociology, 63(3), 387-410.
Toksöz, G. (2009). Kriz Koşullarında Toplumsal Cinsiyet Perspektifinden İşgücü Piyasaları. Ankara: ILO.
Toksöz, G. (2011). Kalkınmada Kadın Emeği. İstanbul: Varlık Yayınları.
Trappe, H., Pollmann-Schult, M. & Schmitt, C. (2015). The Rise and Decline of The Male Breadwinner Model: Institutional Underpinnings and Future Expectations. European Sociological Review, 31(2), 230-242.
TÜİK. (2022a). Türkiye Aile Yapısı Araştırması, 2021.
TÜİK. (2022b). Toplumsal Cinsiyet İstatistikleri, 2021.
TÜİK. (2023a). Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu. İşgücü İstatistikleri. https://www.tuik.gov.tr. (Çeşitli tarihlerde çevrimiçi erişim)
TÜİK. (2023b). İstatistiklerle Kadın, 2022. Haber Bülteni Sayı: 49668, Mart- 2023
UN Women. (2015). Progress of the World’s Women 2015-2016: Transforming Economies, Realizing Rights. New York
UNFPA. (2019). Gender Equality Strategy 2018-2021.
UNFPA. (2020). How Changing Social Norms is Crucial in Achieving Gender Equality.
Uraz, A., Aran, M., Hüsamoğlu, M., Okkalı Şanalmış, D. & Çapar, S. (2010). Türkiye’de Kadınların İşgücüne Katılımında Son Dönemde Gözlenen Eğilimler. DPT ve Dünya Bankası Refah ve Sosyal Politika Analitik Çalışma Programı, Çalışma Raporu, 2.
Weeden, K. A., Gelbgiser, D. & Morgan, S. L. (2020). Pipeline Dreams: Occupational Plans and Gender Differences in STEM Major Persistence and Completion. Sociology of Education, 93(4), 297-331.
World Bank. (2011). World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. Washington, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank.
Wunder, C. & Heineck, G. (2013). Working Time Preferences, Hours Mismatch and Well-Being of Couples: Are There Spillovers?. Labour Economics, 24, 244-252.

There are 87 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language	Turkish
Subjects	Labor Economics and Industrial Relations
Journal Section	Articles
Authors	Elif Özlem Özçatal 0000-0001-7737-5810
Publication Date	September 18, 2023
Published in Issue	Year 2023 Volume: 7 Issue: 3

Cite

APA	Özçatal, E. . . . Ö. (2023). Sosyo-Kültürel ve Yapısal Faktörler Temelinde İşgücü Piyasasında Kadınların Ekonomik Güçlenme Süreci Önündeki Sorunları ve Nedenleri. Fiscaoeconomia, 7(3), 2539-2571. https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1332298

Download Cover Image

Article Files

Full Text

Fiscaoeconomia is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.