Abstract
The history of slavery, which started with commercial interests and imperial rivalries in the newly discovered American continent, became a discrimination system in the American society in the 20th century and continued to make its presence felt with racist policies in the post-colonial world order. Western white researchers wrote the history of enslaved blacks from their own perspectives within the framework of political and constitutional boundaries until the 1950s. Despite this, African-American history which went through life struggles and social traumas, started with the arrival of Africans in North America in the 16th and 17th centuries, and started to be rewritten by blacks with the intensifying civil rights movement between 1955 and 1968.
In the period that continued since 1862, when slavery was abolished by President Abraham Lincoln, although there were reactions against Jim Crow laws and de jure discrimination, the awareness movement under the leadership of the leaders in the mid-1950s mobilized the black masses in an inclusive way. Across the country, non-violent protests have gained greater momentum, deepening in the largely racist Southern states aimed at overturning discrimination laws and restoring voting and basic public rights for African-Americans.
The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the black discrimination and the resistance movement, which continue to be the most important issue in the historical process of racism in the history of the USA. Focusing especially on the 12 years of the Civil Rights Movement, which started in 1955, the main features, leaders, the main tools used to mobilize the masses, important turning points and their national and global reflection and effects will be analysed.
Keywords
African-American Civil Rights movement Martin Luther King Jim Crow Laws nonviolent protest Rosa Parks
References
- A. Araştırma ve İncelemeler
- ADVERTISER, Montgomery, Once We Walked: A Calendar Commemorating the 382 Days of the Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955-56. Montgomery, New South Books, 2005.
- ARNOLD, Martin, “Harlem Is Quiet as Crowds Watch Malcolm X Rites”, New York Times, 28 Şubat 1965.
- CONE, James, Risks of Faith: The Emergence of a Black Theology of Liberation, 1968-1998, Beacon, Boston, 1999.
- CURTIS, Edward, Islam in Black America: Identity, Liberation and Difference in African-American Islamic Thought, State University of New York, Albany, 2006.
- DEMİR, Merve, Sivil İtaatsizlik Perspektifinden ABD’de Sivil Haklar Hareketi, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul, 2018.
- FATTON Jr., Robert, Black Consciousness in South Africa the Dialectics of Ideological Resistance to White Supremacy, State University of New York, United States of America, 1986.
- FERLEGER, Louis A.- Lavallee, Matthew, “Lending a Hand: How Small Black Businesses Supported the Civil Rights Movement”, Institute for New Economic Thinking, Working Paper No. 67, December 2017.
- FREDRICKSON, George M, Racism a Short History. University of Princeton, Oxford, 2002.
- GORDON K. Mantler, Power to the Poor, the University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 2013.
- GRANT, Colin, Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey. Jonathan Cape London, 2008.
- GROSS, Irena Grudzinska, The Scar of Revolution Custine, Tocqueville, and the Romantic Imagination, University Of California Press, Berkeley, 1991.
- LEWIS, David Levering, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race 1868–1919, Henry Holt and Co., New York City, 1993.
- LILCOLN, Eric C., The Black Muslims in America. Africa World Press, Michigan, 1997.
- LOMAX, Louis E., When the Word Is Given: A Report on Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and the Black Muslim World. World Publishing, Cleveland, 1963.
- LUPAČOVÁ, Michaela, John F. Kennedy and His Role in the Civil Rights Movement, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Masaryk University, Brno, 2018.
- PACCARD, Jerrold M, American Nightmare: The History of Jim Crow. St. Martin’s Press, New York, 2002.
- ROBBINS, Mary Susannah, Against the Vietnam War: Writings by Activists. Londra, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007.
- ROBERTS, Joffrey, Bonhoeffer and King: Speaking Truth to Power, Library of Congress in publication Data, United States of America, 2005.
- ROBERTS, Randy-Smith, Johhny, Blood Brothers: The Fatal Relationship between Muhammed Ali and Malcolm X, Basic Books . New York, 2016.
- STUBBS, Aelred, Steve Biko I Write What I Like. Penguin Books, Great Britain, 1988.
- T. HARRISON, Benjamin “Impact of the Vietnam war on the civil rights movement in the Midsixties”, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, V.19, N.3, 1996, p.261-278.
- TAYLOR, Quintard, “The Emergence of Black communities in the Pacific Northwest: 1865–1910”, The Journal of Negro History. C. 64, S.4, 1979, s. 342-354.
- B. İnternet Erişim Adresleri
- “Transatlantic Slave Trade”, https://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0002 . Erişim Tarihi: 15.01.2023
- “A Brief history of Jim Crow”, https://www.crf-usa.org/black-history-month/a-brief-history-of-jim-crow , Erişim Tarihi: 04.02.2023
- “The biography of Abraham Lincoln”, https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/abraham-lincoln/ , Erişim Tarihi: 10.01.2023
- “The Black Church”, https://web.archive.org/web/20070604102217/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3narr3.html Erişim Tarihi: 05.01.2023
- “The Great Migration 1910-70”, https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/migrations/great-migration, Erişim Tarihi: 10.01.2023
- “Birth of civil rights movement 1941-1954”, https://www.nps.gov/subjects/civilrights/birth-of-civil-rights.htm Erişim Tarihi: 15.01.2023
- “Rosa Parks-The mother of the modern day civil rights movement” https://www.blackhistorymonth.org.uk/article/section/civil-rights-movement/rosa-parks-the-mother-of-the-modern-day-civil-rights-movement/ Erişim Tarihi: 20.01.2023
- “Martin Luther King Jr. “The Montgomery Bus Boycott”, https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/1955-martin-luther-king-jr-montgomery-bus-boycott/ Erişim Tarihi: 19.01.2023
- “Letters from Birmingham Jail-1 by Martin Luther King Jr.”, August 1963, https://www.csuchico.edu/iege/_assets/documents/susi-letter-from-birmingham-jail.pdf , Erişim Tarihi: 03.02.2023
- “Washington yürüyüşünün resmi programı için”, https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/official-program-for-the-march-on-washington Erişim Tarihi: 27.01.2023
- “Martin Luther King’in benim bir hayalim var konuşmasının full metni ve ses kaydı”, https://www.npr.org/2010/01/18/122701268/i-have-a-dream-speech-in-its-entirety, Erişim Tarihi: 28.01.2023
- “Sivil Haklar Yasası”, https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/civil-rights-act , Erişim Tarihi: 18.01.2023
- “1968 Martin Luther King shot dead”. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/4/newsid_2453000/2453987.stm , Erişim Tarihi: 21.02.2023
- CLAY Risen, “The Unmaking of the President”. No. April 2008, Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-unmaking-of-the-president-31577203/ Erişim Tarihi: 21.02.2023.
- TOBIAS, Carl W., Civil Rights in the Cold War Book Review, University of Richmond Law Faculty Publication, https://scholarship.richmond.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1639&context=law-faculty-publications , 2002 Erişim Tarihi. 24.01.2023
- UNSWORTH, Tim, “Racism and religion: partners in crime? Salt of the Earth”, 1997, http://salt.claretianpubs. org/issues/racism/unsworth.html Erişim Tarihi: 28.01.2023
Abstract
Yeni keşfedilen Amerika kıtasında ticari çıkarlar ve emperyal rekabetlerle başlayan köleliğin tarihi, 20. yüzyılda Amerikan toplumu içinde ayrımcılık sistemi halini almış, post kolonyal dünya düzeninde ırkçı politikalarla varlığını hissettirmeye devam etmiştir. Oryantalizmin yaydığı Doğu imajı çerçevesinde oluşturulan düşüncelerde olduğu gibi Batılı beyaz araştırmacılar 1950’li yıllara kadar köleleştirilmiş siyahilerin tarihini siyasi ve anayasal sınırlar çerçevesinde kendi perspektiflerinden yazmışlardır. Buna rağmen, yaşamsal mücadele ve toplumsal travmalarla geçen Afroamerikan tarihi, Afrikalıların 16. ve 17. yüzyıllarda Kuzey Amerika'ya gelişiyle başlamış, 1955 ve 1968 yılları arasında yoğunlaşan sivil haklar hareketi ile birlikte siyahiler tarafından yeniden yazılmaya başlamıştır.
Köleliğin Başkan Abraham Lincoln tarafından kaldırıldığı 1862 yılından itibaren devam eden dönemde, Jim Crow yasaları ve de jure ayrımcılığa karşı tepkiler verilse de 1950’li yılların ortalarında liderlerin öncülüğünde bilinçlenme hareketi kapsayıcı bir şekilde siyahi kitleleri harekete geçirmiştir. Büyük ölçüde ırkçı Güney eyaletlerinde derinleşen, ayrımcılık yasalarını bozmak ve Afroamerikalılar için oy ve temel kamusal haklarını geri getirmek hedefinde ülke genelinde şiddet içermeyen protestolar her geçen gün daha da büyük bir ivme kazanmıştır.
Bu çalışmanın temel amacı, ABD tarihinde ırkçılığın tarihsel sürecinde en önemli konu olmayı sürdüren siyahi ayrımcılığını ve direniş hareketini ana hatlarıyla değerlendirmektir. Özellikle 1955 yılında başlayan Sivil Haklar Hareketi’nin 13 yılına odaklanarak temel özellikleri, liderleri, kitleleri harekete geçirmede kullanılan temel araçları, önemli dönüm noktaları ve bunların ulusal ve küresel boyuttaki yansıma ile etkileri analiz edilecektir.
Keywords
Afroamerikan Sivil Haklar hareketi Martin Luther King Jim Crow Yasaları şiddet içermeyen protesto Rosa Parks
References
- A. Araştırma ve İncelemeler
- ADVERTISER, Montgomery, Once We Walked: A Calendar Commemorating the 382 Days of the Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955-56. Montgomery, New South Books, 2005.
- ARNOLD, Martin, “Harlem Is Quiet as Crowds Watch Malcolm X Rites”, New York Times, 28 Şubat 1965.
- CONE, James, Risks of Faith: The Emergence of a Black Theology of Liberation, 1968-1998, Beacon, Boston, 1999.
- CURTIS, Edward, Islam in Black America: Identity, Liberation and Difference in African-American Islamic Thought, State University of New York, Albany, 2006.
- DEMİR, Merve, Sivil İtaatsizlik Perspektifinden ABD’de Sivil Haklar Hareketi, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul, 2018.
- FATTON Jr., Robert, Black Consciousness in South Africa the Dialectics of Ideological Resistance to White Supremacy, State University of New York, United States of America, 1986.
- FERLEGER, Louis A.- Lavallee, Matthew, “Lending a Hand: How Small Black Businesses Supported the Civil Rights Movement”, Institute for New Economic Thinking, Working Paper No. 67, December 2017.
- FREDRICKSON, George M, Racism a Short History. University of Princeton, Oxford, 2002.
- GORDON K. Mantler, Power to the Poor, the University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 2013.
- GRANT, Colin, Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey. Jonathan Cape London, 2008.
- GROSS, Irena Grudzinska, The Scar of Revolution Custine, Tocqueville, and the Romantic Imagination, University Of California Press, Berkeley, 1991.
- LEWIS, David Levering, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race 1868–1919, Henry Holt and Co., New York City, 1993.
- LILCOLN, Eric C., The Black Muslims in America. Africa World Press, Michigan, 1997.
- LOMAX, Louis E., When the Word Is Given: A Report on Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and the Black Muslim World. World Publishing, Cleveland, 1963.
- LUPAČOVÁ, Michaela, John F. Kennedy and His Role in the Civil Rights Movement, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Masaryk University, Brno, 2018.
- PACCARD, Jerrold M, American Nightmare: The History of Jim Crow. St. Martin’s Press, New York, 2002.
- ROBBINS, Mary Susannah, Against the Vietnam War: Writings by Activists. Londra, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007.
- ROBERTS, Joffrey, Bonhoeffer and King: Speaking Truth to Power, Library of Congress in publication Data, United States of America, 2005.
- ROBERTS, Randy-Smith, Johhny, Blood Brothers: The Fatal Relationship between Muhammed Ali and Malcolm X, Basic Books . New York, 2016.
- STUBBS, Aelred, Steve Biko I Write What I Like. Penguin Books, Great Britain, 1988.
- T. HARRISON, Benjamin “Impact of the Vietnam war on the civil rights movement in the Midsixties”, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, V.19, N.3, 1996, p.261-278.
- TAYLOR, Quintard, “The Emergence of Black communities in the Pacific Northwest: 1865–1910”, The Journal of Negro History. C. 64, S.4, 1979, s. 342-354.
- B. İnternet Erişim Adresleri
- “Transatlantic Slave Trade”, https://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0002 . Erişim Tarihi: 15.01.2023
- “A Brief history of Jim Crow”, https://www.crf-usa.org/black-history-month/a-brief-history-of-jim-crow , Erişim Tarihi: 04.02.2023
- “The biography of Abraham Lincoln”, https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/abraham-lincoln/ , Erişim Tarihi: 10.01.2023
- “The Black Church”, https://web.archive.org/web/20070604102217/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3narr3.html Erişim Tarihi: 05.01.2023
- “The Great Migration 1910-70”, https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/migrations/great-migration, Erişim Tarihi: 10.01.2023
- “Birth of civil rights movement 1941-1954”, https://www.nps.gov/subjects/civilrights/birth-of-civil-rights.htm Erişim Tarihi: 15.01.2023
- “Rosa Parks-The mother of the modern day civil rights movement” https://www.blackhistorymonth.org.uk/article/section/civil-rights-movement/rosa-parks-the-mother-of-the-modern-day-civil-rights-movement/ Erişim Tarihi: 20.01.2023
- “Martin Luther King Jr. “The Montgomery Bus Boycott”, https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/1955-martin-luther-king-jr-montgomery-bus-boycott/ Erişim Tarihi: 19.01.2023
- “Letters from Birmingham Jail-1 by Martin Luther King Jr.”, August 1963, https://www.csuchico.edu/iege/_assets/documents/susi-letter-from-birmingham-jail.pdf , Erişim Tarihi: 03.02.2023
- “Washington yürüyüşünün resmi programı için”, https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/official-program-for-the-march-on-washington Erişim Tarihi: 27.01.2023
- “Martin Luther King’in benim bir hayalim var konuşmasının full metni ve ses kaydı”, https://www.npr.org/2010/01/18/122701268/i-have-a-dream-speech-in-its-entirety, Erişim Tarihi: 28.01.2023
- “Sivil Haklar Yasası”, https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/civil-rights-act , Erişim Tarihi: 18.01.2023
- “1968 Martin Luther King shot dead”. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/4/newsid_2453000/2453987.stm , Erişim Tarihi: 21.02.2023
- CLAY Risen, “The Unmaking of the President”. No. April 2008, Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-unmaking-of-the-president-31577203/ Erişim Tarihi: 21.02.2023.
- TOBIAS, Carl W., Civil Rights in the Cold War Book Review, University of Richmond Law Faculty Publication, https://scholarship.richmond.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1639&context=law-faculty-publications , 2002 Erişim Tarihi. 24.01.2023
- UNSWORTH, Tim, “Racism and religion: partners in crime? Salt of the Earth”, 1997, http://salt.claretianpubs. org/issues/racism/unsworth.html Erişim Tarihi: 28.01.2023
Details
| Primary Language | Turkish |
|---|---|
| Journal Section | Research Articles |
| Authors | |
| Early Pub Date | August 6, 2023 |
| Publication Date | August 9, 2023 |
| Submission Date | April 7, 2023 |
| Published in Issue | Year 2023 Volume: 15 Issue: 3 |
