Research Article
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Year 2023, Volume: 3 Issue: 2, 170 - 193, 03.10.2023
https://doi.org/10.52241/TJDS.2023.0061

Abstract

References

  • Abbasi-Shavazi, M. et al. (2005). Return to Afghanistan? A Study of Afghans Living in Tehran. AREU Case Study Series, Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, Kabul. https://reliefweb.int/attachments/87700d05-40aa-346e-a680-b752ab12d7cc/FB36EE5BF36897024925701B0024BAEE-areu-afg-9jun.pdf
  • Adhikari, P. (2012). The plight of the forgotten ones: Civil war and forced migration. International Studies Quarterly, 56(3), 590-606. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00712.x
  • Amara, M., & Jemmali, H. (2018). Deciphering the relationship between internal migration and regional disparities in Tunisia. Social Indicators Research, 135, 313-331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1487-y
  • Anam, M., & Chiang, S. H. (2007). Rural–urban migration of family labor: A portfolio model. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 16(3), 325-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638190701526477
  • Bakewell, O. (2010). Some reflections on structure and agency in migration theory. Journal of ethnic and migration studies, 36(10), 1689-1708. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2010.489382
  • Barrios, S., Bertinelli, L., & Strobl, E. (2006). Climatic change and rural–urban migration: The case of sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Urban Economics, 60(3), 357-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2006.04.005
  • BBC News. (2021). Afghanistan: How many refugees are there and where will they go? BBC News.
  • Bogue, D. J. (1977). A Migrant's-Eye View of the Costs and Benefits of Migration to a Metropolis. In Internal migration (pp. 167-182). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-137350-4.50016-0
  • Borjas, G. J. (1990). Friends or strangers: The impact of immigrants on the U.S. economy. New York, NY: Basic Books. Boyd, M. (1989). Family and personal networks in international migration: recent developments and new agendas. International migration review, 23(3), 638-670. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791838902300313
  • Cummings, C., Pacitto, J., Lauro, D., & Foresti, M. (2015). Why people move: understanding the drivers and trends of migration to Europe. London: Overseas Development Institute. https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/10485.pdf
  • Dasgupta, S., Moqbul Hossain, M. D., Huq, M., & Wheeler, D. (2014). Facing the hungry tide: Climate change, livelihood threats, and household responses in coastal Bangladesh (Report WPS7148). Washington, DC: World Bank Group.
  • Davenport, C., Moore, W., & Poe, S. (2003). Sometimes you just have to leave: Domestic threats and forced migration, 1964-1989. International Interactions, 29(1), 27-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050620304597
  • De Haas, H. (2011). The determinants of international migration: Conceptualizing policy, origin and destination effects (Vol. 32/2011). Oxford: International Migration Institute (IMI). WP32 The Determinants of International Migration.pdf
  • Dubey, S., & Mallah, V. (2015). Migration: causes and effects. The Business & Management Review, 5(4), 228. https://cberuk.com/cdn/conference_proceedings/2015iciee_india39.pdf
  • Garrote-Sanchez, D. (2017). International Labor Mobility of Nationals: Experience and evidence for Afghanistan at macro level. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/International-Labor-Mobility-of Nationals%3A-and-for-Garrote
  • Garrote-Sanchez, Daniel. 2017. International Labor Mobility of Nationals: Experience and Evidence for Afghanistan at Macro Level. World Bank, Washington, DC.https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/911643f3-e07b-5480-a06c-d9beac192970/content
  • Gartaula, H. N. (2009). International migration and local development in Nepal. Contribution to Nepalese Studies, 36(1), 37-65. https://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/contributions/pdf/CNAS_36_01_03.pdf
  • Ghatak, S., Levine, P., & Price, S. W. (1996). Migration theories and evidence: an assessment. Journal of Economic Surveys, 10(2), 159-198. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6419.1996.tb00008.x
  • Gul, A. (2021). More Than 300,000 Afghans Flee to Pakistan Since Taliban Takeover of Afghanistan. Voice of America.
  • Hagen‐Zanker, J. (2008). Why do people migrate? A review of the theoretical literature. A Review of the Theoretical Literature (January 2008). Maastricht Graduate School of Governance Working Paper No. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1105657
  • Harris, J. R., & Todaro, M. P. (1970). Migration, unemployment and development: A two-sector analysis. The American Economic Review, 60(1), 126-142.
  • Haug, S. (2008). Migration networks and migration decision-making. Journal of ethnic and migration studies, 34(4), 585-605. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691830801961605
  • Henderson, J. V., Storeygard, A., & Deichmann, U. (2017). Has climate change driven urbanization in Africa?. Journal of development economics, 124, 60-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.09.001
  • Horváth, I., & Anghel, R. G. (2009). Migration and its consequences for Romania. Comparative Southeast European Studies, 57(4), 386-403. https://doi.org/10.1515/soeu-2009-570406
  • IMF.(2016). World economic outlook, October 2016: subdued demand: symptoms and remedies. International Monetary Fund. https://www.imf.org/-/media/Websites/IMF/imported-flagship-issues/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/02/pdf/_text.ashx
  • Kassar, H., & Dourgnon, P. (2014). The big crossing: illegal boat migrants in the Mediterranean. The European Journal of Public Health, 24(suppl_1), 11-15. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cku099
  • King, R. (2012). Theories and typologies of migration: An overview and a primer (Willy Brandt Series of Working Papers in International Migration and Ethnic Relations 3/12). Malmö: Malmö University, 3-3.
  • Kirwin, M., & Anderson, J. (2018). Identifying the factors driving West African migration (West African Papers 17/2018). Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/24142026
  • Kronenfeld, D.A. (2008). Afghan refugees in Pakistan: Not all refugees, not always in Pakistan, not necessarily Afghan? Journal of Refugee Studies, 21(1): 43-63.
  • Kuschminder, K., & Dora, M. (2009). Migration in Afghanistan: History, Current Trends and Future Prospects (Paper Series: Migration and Development Country Profiles). Maastricht:MGSoG.http://mgsog.merit.unu.edu/publications/external_policy_reports/2009_Afghanistan_Country_Paper.pdf
  • Lee, E. (1966). A theory of migration. Demography, 3(1), 47–57. https://emigratecaportuguesa.files.wordpress.com/2015/04/1966-a-theory-of-migration.pdf
  • Lee, L. T. (1996). Internally displaced persons and refugees: toward a legal synthesis?. Journal of Refugee Studies, 9(1), 27-42. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/9.1.27
  • Marchand, K., Siegel, M., Kuschminder, K., Majidi, N., Vanore, M., & Buil, C. (2014). Afghanistan Migration Profile. https://publications.iom.int/books/migration-profile-afghanistan-2014
  • Massey, D. S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., & Taylor, J. E. (1993). Theories of international migration: A review and appraisal. Population and development review, 431-466. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2938462
  • Mincer, J. (1978). Family migration decisions. Journal of political Economy, 86(5), 749-773. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/260710
  • Moore, W. H., & Shellman, S. M. (2004). Fear of persecution: Forced migration, 1952-1995. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 48(5), 723-745. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002704267767
  • Murrugarra, E., Larrison, J., & Sasin, M. J. (2011). Migration and poverty: toward better opportunities for the poor. World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/da2c72a5-fde5-5dcc-9aed-a3566d40a6cb/content
  • Neumann, K., & Hermans, F. (2017). What drives human migration in Sahelian Countries? A meta‐analysis. Population, Space and Place, 23(1), e1962. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.1962
  • Noor, S. (2006). Afghan Refugees After 9/11. Pakistan Horizon, 59(1), 59-78. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41394381 NRC. (2021, November 10). Humanitarian needs in Iran rise as 300,000 Afghans arrive since Taliban takeover. The Norwegian Refugee Council.
  • Pete Spink. (2020). Climate change drives migration in conflict-ridden Afghanistan. ActionAid International.https://actionaid.org/sites/default/files/publications/Climate%20change%20induced%20migration%20in%20Afghanistan%20Final_0.pdf
  • Ratha, D., Eigen-Zucchi, C., & Plaza, S. (2016). Migration and remittances Factbook 2016. World Bank Publications. https://www.knomad.org/sites/default/files/2017-03/9781464803192_0.pdf
  • Ritchey, P. N. (1976). Explanations of migration. Annual review of sociology, 2(1), 363-404. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.so.02.080176.002051
  • Rubin, B. R. (1996). Afghanistan: The forgotten crisis. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 15(2), 1-35. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45052984
  • Ruiz, H. A., Frelick, B., & Emery, M. (2001). Pakistan: Afghan refugees shunned and scorned. Immigration and Refugee Services of America. https://www.refworld.org/docid/3bc1918810.html
  • Schmeidl, S. (1995). From root cause assessment to preventive diplomacy: Possibilities and limitations of the early warning of forced migration. The Ohio State University. https://www.proquest.com/openview/44ffe0953acbeb44665df6b920e4bfb4/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
  • Schwartz, A. (1976). Migration, age, and education. Journal of Political Economy, 84(4, Part 1), 701-719. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/epdf/10.1086/260472
  • Sjaastad, L. A. (1962). The costs and returns of human migration. Journal of political Economy, 70(5, Part 2), 80-93. https://doi.org/10.1086/258726
  • Stark, O., & Bloom, D. E. (1985). The new economics of labor migration. The American Economic review, 75(2), 173-178. https://doi.org/10.2307/1805591
  • Stark, O., & Taylor, J. E. (1989). Relative deprivation and international migration oded stark. Demography, 26(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.2307/2061490
  • Stark, O., & Taylor, J. E. (1991). Migration incentives, migration types: The role of relative deprivation. The economic journal, 101(408), 1163-1178. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234433
  • UNHCR. (2022). Figures at a Glance. Retrieved 02 18, 2022, from https://www.unhcr.org/figures-at-a-glance.html
  • Van Dalen, H. P., Groenewold, G., & Schoorl, J. J. (2005). Out of Africa: What drives the pressure to emigrate?. Journal of Population Economics, 18, 741-778. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-005-0003-5
  • Vieira, R. (2021). A new initiative to combat poverty in Afghanistan. The Borgen project.
  • Wickramasekara, P., & Baruah, N. (2013). Labour migration for decent work in Afghanistan: Issues and challenges. Available at SSRN 2359158. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2359158

Socio-Demographic, Cause, and Benefit of Internal and International Migration: A case study of Mazar-i-Sharif, Balkh province, Afghanistan

Year 2023, Volume: 3 Issue: 2, 170 - 193, 03.10.2023
https://doi.org/10.52241/TJDS.2023.0061

Abstract

Migration has a long history in Afghanistan, but it has increased remarkably over the last decade. This study examines the actual data of 1060 households in Mazar-i-Sharif, the capital of the Balkh province in Afghanistan to evaluate the main causes and benefits of migration. The data used in this study was obtained from a strictly random process. The study finds that the main reasons for internal and international migration are unemployment and income inequality, in addition to war and poverty, as international motivations for migration. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that households receive benefit from migrant remittances to increase their income and smooth consumption. Thus, the study suggests that to manage migration in Afghanistan, the government and international organizations should work together for peace and the reduction of poverty in Afghanistan to mitigate a further migration crisis in the future.

References

  • Abbasi-Shavazi, M. et al. (2005). Return to Afghanistan? A Study of Afghans Living in Tehran. AREU Case Study Series, Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, Kabul. https://reliefweb.int/attachments/87700d05-40aa-346e-a680-b752ab12d7cc/FB36EE5BF36897024925701B0024BAEE-areu-afg-9jun.pdf
  • Adhikari, P. (2012). The plight of the forgotten ones: Civil war and forced migration. International Studies Quarterly, 56(3), 590-606. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00712.x
  • Amara, M., & Jemmali, H. (2018). Deciphering the relationship between internal migration and regional disparities in Tunisia. Social Indicators Research, 135, 313-331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1487-y
  • Anam, M., & Chiang, S. H. (2007). Rural–urban migration of family labor: A portfolio model. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 16(3), 325-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638190701526477
  • Bakewell, O. (2010). Some reflections on structure and agency in migration theory. Journal of ethnic and migration studies, 36(10), 1689-1708. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2010.489382
  • Barrios, S., Bertinelli, L., & Strobl, E. (2006). Climatic change and rural–urban migration: The case of sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Urban Economics, 60(3), 357-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2006.04.005
  • BBC News. (2021). Afghanistan: How many refugees are there and where will they go? BBC News.
  • Bogue, D. J. (1977). A Migrant's-Eye View of the Costs and Benefits of Migration to a Metropolis. In Internal migration (pp. 167-182). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-137350-4.50016-0
  • Borjas, G. J. (1990). Friends or strangers: The impact of immigrants on the U.S. economy. New York, NY: Basic Books. Boyd, M. (1989). Family and personal networks in international migration: recent developments and new agendas. International migration review, 23(3), 638-670. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791838902300313
  • Cummings, C., Pacitto, J., Lauro, D., & Foresti, M. (2015). Why people move: understanding the drivers and trends of migration to Europe. London: Overseas Development Institute. https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/10485.pdf
  • Dasgupta, S., Moqbul Hossain, M. D., Huq, M., & Wheeler, D. (2014). Facing the hungry tide: Climate change, livelihood threats, and household responses in coastal Bangladesh (Report WPS7148). Washington, DC: World Bank Group.
  • Davenport, C., Moore, W., & Poe, S. (2003). Sometimes you just have to leave: Domestic threats and forced migration, 1964-1989. International Interactions, 29(1), 27-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050620304597
  • De Haas, H. (2011). The determinants of international migration: Conceptualizing policy, origin and destination effects (Vol. 32/2011). Oxford: International Migration Institute (IMI). WP32 The Determinants of International Migration.pdf
  • Dubey, S., & Mallah, V. (2015). Migration: causes and effects. The Business & Management Review, 5(4), 228. https://cberuk.com/cdn/conference_proceedings/2015iciee_india39.pdf
  • Garrote-Sanchez, D. (2017). International Labor Mobility of Nationals: Experience and evidence for Afghanistan at macro level. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/International-Labor-Mobility-of Nationals%3A-and-for-Garrote
  • Garrote-Sanchez, Daniel. 2017. International Labor Mobility of Nationals: Experience and Evidence for Afghanistan at Macro Level. World Bank, Washington, DC.https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/911643f3-e07b-5480-a06c-d9beac192970/content
  • Gartaula, H. N. (2009). International migration and local development in Nepal. Contribution to Nepalese Studies, 36(1), 37-65. https://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/contributions/pdf/CNAS_36_01_03.pdf
  • Ghatak, S., Levine, P., & Price, S. W. (1996). Migration theories and evidence: an assessment. Journal of Economic Surveys, 10(2), 159-198. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6419.1996.tb00008.x
  • Gul, A. (2021). More Than 300,000 Afghans Flee to Pakistan Since Taliban Takeover of Afghanistan. Voice of America.
  • Hagen‐Zanker, J. (2008). Why do people migrate? A review of the theoretical literature. A Review of the Theoretical Literature (January 2008). Maastricht Graduate School of Governance Working Paper No. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1105657
  • Harris, J. R., & Todaro, M. P. (1970). Migration, unemployment and development: A two-sector analysis. The American Economic Review, 60(1), 126-142.
  • Haug, S. (2008). Migration networks and migration decision-making. Journal of ethnic and migration studies, 34(4), 585-605. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691830801961605
  • Henderson, J. V., Storeygard, A., & Deichmann, U. (2017). Has climate change driven urbanization in Africa?. Journal of development economics, 124, 60-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.09.001
  • Horváth, I., & Anghel, R. G. (2009). Migration and its consequences for Romania. Comparative Southeast European Studies, 57(4), 386-403. https://doi.org/10.1515/soeu-2009-570406
  • IMF.(2016). World economic outlook, October 2016: subdued demand: symptoms and remedies. International Monetary Fund. https://www.imf.org/-/media/Websites/IMF/imported-flagship-issues/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/02/pdf/_text.ashx
  • Kassar, H., & Dourgnon, P. (2014). The big crossing: illegal boat migrants in the Mediterranean. The European Journal of Public Health, 24(suppl_1), 11-15. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cku099
  • King, R. (2012). Theories and typologies of migration: An overview and a primer (Willy Brandt Series of Working Papers in International Migration and Ethnic Relations 3/12). Malmö: Malmö University, 3-3.
  • Kirwin, M., & Anderson, J. (2018). Identifying the factors driving West African migration (West African Papers 17/2018). Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/24142026
  • Kronenfeld, D.A. (2008). Afghan refugees in Pakistan: Not all refugees, not always in Pakistan, not necessarily Afghan? Journal of Refugee Studies, 21(1): 43-63.
  • Kuschminder, K., & Dora, M. (2009). Migration in Afghanistan: History, Current Trends and Future Prospects (Paper Series: Migration and Development Country Profiles). Maastricht:MGSoG.http://mgsog.merit.unu.edu/publications/external_policy_reports/2009_Afghanistan_Country_Paper.pdf
  • Lee, E. (1966). A theory of migration. Demography, 3(1), 47–57. https://emigratecaportuguesa.files.wordpress.com/2015/04/1966-a-theory-of-migration.pdf
  • Lee, L. T. (1996). Internally displaced persons and refugees: toward a legal synthesis?. Journal of Refugee Studies, 9(1), 27-42. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/9.1.27
  • Marchand, K., Siegel, M., Kuschminder, K., Majidi, N., Vanore, M., & Buil, C. (2014). Afghanistan Migration Profile. https://publications.iom.int/books/migration-profile-afghanistan-2014
  • Massey, D. S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., & Taylor, J. E. (1993). Theories of international migration: A review and appraisal. Population and development review, 431-466. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2938462
  • Mincer, J. (1978). Family migration decisions. Journal of political Economy, 86(5), 749-773. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/260710
  • Moore, W. H., & Shellman, S. M. (2004). Fear of persecution: Forced migration, 1952-1995. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 48(5), 723-745. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002704267767
  • Murrugarra, E., Larrison, J., & Sasin, M. J. (2011). Migration and poverty: toward better opportunities for the poor. World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/da2c72a5-fde5-5dcc-9aed-a3566d40a6cb/content
  • Neumann, K., & Hermans, F. (2017). What drives human migration in Sahelian Countries? A meta‐analysis. Population, Space and Place, 23(1), e1962. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.1962
  • Noor, S. (2006). Afghan Refugees After 9/11. Pakistan Horizon, 59(1), 59-78. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41394381 NRC. (2021, November 10). Humanitarian needs in Iran rise as 300,000 Afghans arrive since Taliban takeover. The Norwegian Refugee Council.
  • Pete Spink. (2020). Climate change drives migration in conflict-ridden Afghanistan. ActionAid International.https://actionaid.org/sites/default/files/publications/Climate%20change%20induced%20migration%20in%20Afghanistan%20Final_0.pdf
  • Ratha, D., Eigen-Zucchi, C., & Plaza, S. (2016). Migration and remittances Factbook 2016. World Bank Publications. https://www.knomad.org/sites/default/files/2017-03/9781464803192_0.pdf
  • Ritchey, P. N. (1976). Explanations of migration. Annual review of sociology, 2(1), 363-404. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.so.02.080176.002051
  • Rubin, B. R. (1996). Afghanistan: The forgotten crisis. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 15(2), 1-35. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45052984
  • Ruiz, H. A., Frelick, B., & Emery, M. (2001). Pakistan: Afghan refugees shunned and scorned. Immigration and Refugee Services of America. https://www.refworld.org/docid/3bc1918810.html
  • Schmeidl, S. (1995). From root cause assessment to preventive diplomacy: Possibilities and limitations of the early warning of forced migration. The Ohio State University. https://www.proquest.com/openview/44ffe0953acbeb44665df6b920e4bfb4/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
  • Schwartz, A. (1976). Migration, age, and education. Journal of Political Economy, 84(4, Part 1), 701-719. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/epdf/10.1086/260472
  • Sjaastad, L. A. (1962). The costs and returns of human migration. Journal of political Economy, 70(5, Part 2), 80-93. https://doi.org/10.1086/258726
  • Stark, O., & Bloom, D. E. (1985). The new economics of labor migration. The American Economic review, 75(2), 173-178. https://doi.org/10.2307/1805591
  • Stark, O., & Taylor, J. E. (1989). Relative deprivation and international migration oded stark. Demography, 26(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.2307/2061490
  • Stark, O., & Taylor, J. E. (1991). Migration incentives, migration types: The role of relative deprivation. The economic journal, 101(408), 1163-1178. https://doi.org/10.2307/2234433
  • UNHCR. (2022). Figures at a Glance. Retrieved 02 18, 2022, from https://www.unhcr.org/figures-at-a-glance.html
  • Van Dalen, H. P., Groenewold, G., & Schoorl, J. J. (2005). Out of Africa: What drives the pressure to emigrate?. Journal of Population Economics, 18, 741-778. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-005-0003-5
  • Vieira, R. (2021). A new initiative to combat poverty in Afghanistan. The Borgen project.
  • Wickramasekara, P., & Baruah, N. (2013). Labour migration for decent work in Afghanistan: Issues and challenges. Available at SSRN 2359158. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2359158
There are 54 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Cultural Studies
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Baqir Khawari

Mohammad Sadiq Khawari 0009-0003-6096-6245

Early Pub Date October 4, 2023
Publication Date October 3, 2023
Submission Date April 28, 2023
Published in Issue Year 2023 Volume: 3 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Khawari, B., & Khawari, M. S. (2023). Socio-Demographic, Cause, and Benefit of Internal and International Migration: A case study of Mazar-i-Sharif, Balkh province, Afghanistan. Turkish Journal of Diaspora Studies, 3(2), 170-193. https://doi.org/10.52241/TJDS.2023.0061

Turkish Journal of Diaspora Studies is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY NC).